In the northeastern part of the Indian subcontinent, Bangladesh lies in the delta of the Padma (Ganges) and Jamuna (Brahmaputra) rivers.
The Bangladeshi economy
The riverine country of Bangladesh, which is one of the most densely populated countries in the world, is also predominantly Muslim. The area once formed, along with what is now the Indian state of West Bengal, the province of Bengal in British India. With the partition of India in 1947 it became the Pakistani province of East Bengal (later renamed East Pakistan), one of five provinces of Pakistan, separated from the other four by 1,100 miles (1,800 km) of Indian territory. In 1971 it became the independent country of Bangladesh with its capital at Dhaka.
Bangladesh’s physical characteristics
In addition to West Bengal to the west and north, Assam to the north, Meghalaya to the north, Tripura and Mizoram to the east, Bangladesh is bordered by four Indian states. The southern part of Bangladesh opens into the Bay of Bengal, and the southeast bordered by Myanmar (Burma).
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Stretching northward from the Bay of Bengal, Bangladesh constitutes roughly the eastern two-thirds of the deltaic plain of the Padma (Ganges [Ganga]) and Jamuna (Brahmaputra) rivers. Except for small higher areas of jungle-covered old alluvium in the northwest and north-center—in the Barind and the Madhupur Tracts, respectively—the plain is a flat surface of recent alluvium, having a gentle slope and an elevation of generally less than 30 feet (9 metres) above sea level. In the northeast and southeast—in the Sylhet and Chittagong Hills areas, respectively—the alluvial plains give place to ridges, running mainly north-south, that form part of the mountains that separate Bangladesh from Myanmar and India. In its southern region, Bangladesh is fringed by the Sundarbans, a huge expanse of marshy deltaic forest.
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The Barind is a somewhat elevated triangular wedge of land that lies between the floodplains of the upper Padma and Jamuna rivers in northwestern Bangladesh. A depression called the Bhar Basin extends southeast from the Barind for about 100 miles (160 km) to the confluence of the Padma and Jamuna. The area is inundated during the summer monsoon season, in some places to a depth exceeding 10 feet (3 metres). The drainage of the western part of the basin is centred in the vast marshy area called Chalan wetlands, also known as Chalan Lake.
In north-central Bangladesh, east of the Jamuna floodplains, is the Madhupur Tract. It’s elevated plateau on which hillocks ranging in height from 30 to 60 feet (9 to 18 metres) give contour to cultivated valleys. The Madhupur Tract contains sal trees, whose hardwood is comparable in value and utility to teak. East of the Madhupur Tract, in northeastern Bangladesh, is a region called the Northeastern Lowland. It encompasses the southern and southwestern parts of the Sylhet area (including the valley plain of the Surma River) and the northern part of the Mymensingh area and has a large number of lakes. The Sylhet Hills in the far northeast of the region consist of a number of hillocks and hills ranging in elevation from about 100 feet (30 metres) to more than 1,100 feet (330 metres).
With its old course (the Old Brahmaputra River), the Brahmaputra River formed the flood basin of the Meghna River in east-central Bangladesh, encompassing the fertile Meghna-Sitalakhya Doab (the land area between the rivers). As a result of the Titas distributary, this area is enriched, and land is formed and changed by the deposition of silt and sand in the riverbeds of the Meghna River, especially between Bhairab Bazar and Daudkandi. Dhaka is located in this region.
In southern Bangladesh the Central Delta Basins includes the extensive lakes in the central part of the Bengal Delta, to the south of the upper Padma. The basin’s total area is about 1,200 square miles (3,100 square km). A belt of land in southwestern Bangladesh bordering the Bay of Bengal constitutes the Immature Delta. A lowland of some 3,000 square miles (7,800 square km), the belt contains, in addition to the vast mangrove forest known as Sundarbans, the reclaimed and cultivated lands to north of it. The area nearest Bay of Bengal is crisscrossed by a network of streams that flow around roughly oblong islands. The Active Delta located north of Central Delta Basins and east of Immature Delta include Dhaleswari-Padma Doab and estuarine islands of varying sizes found from Pusur River in southwest to Sandwip near Chittagong in southeast.
The Chittagong region, which has many hills, hillocks, valleys, and forests and is quite different in aspect from other parts of the country, is located south of the Feni River in southeastern Bangladesh. The coastal plain, which extends southward from the Feni River to Cox’s Bazar and varies in width from 1 to 10 miles (1.6 to 16 km), also has a number of offshore islands and one coral reef, St. Martin’s, off the coast of Myanmar.
The most significant feature of the Bangladeshi landscape is provided by the rivers, which have molded not only its physiography but also the way of life of the people. Rivers in Bangladesh, however, are subject to constant and sometimes rapid changes of course, which can affect the hydrology of a large region; consequently, no description of Bangladesh’s topography retains its absolute accuracy for long. One spectacular example of such a change occurred in 1787, when the Tista River underwent exceptionally high flooding; its waters were suddenly diverted eastward, where they reinforced the Brahmaputra. The swollen Brahmaputra in turn began to cut into a minor stream, which by the early 1800s had become the river’s main lower course, now known as the Jamuna. A much smaller river (the Old Brahmaputra) now flows through the Brahmaputra’s former course.
Between June and October, rivers overflow their banks and flood the countryside, rising in September and October and receding quickly in November. The inundations are both a blessing and a curse. Without severe flooding, the fertile silt deposits would not be replenished, but severe flooding regularly damages crops and ruines hamlets and sometimes kills people and animals.
The rivers may be divided into five systems: (1) the Padma (or Ganges) and its deltaic streams, (2) the Meghna and the Surma river system, (3) the Jamuna and its adjoining channels, (4) the North Bengal rivers, and (5) the Chittagong Hill Tracts and adjoining plains.
The greater Ganges, the pivot of the deltaic river system of the historical region of Bengal, covers some 23,000 square miles (60,000 square km), the bulk of it in southwestern Bangladesh. The Ganges in Bangladesh is known as the Padma, and it is divided into two segments, the upper Padma and the lower Padma. The Padma proper begins at its confluence with the Jamuna west of Dhaka and flows southeast to join the Meghna near Chandpur. Except where it is confined by high banks, the upper Padma’s main channel changes course every two or three years.
The Meghna is formed by the union of the Sylhet-Surma and Kusiyara rivers. These two rivers are branches of the Barak River, which rises in the Nagar-Manipur watershed in India. The main branch of the Barak, the Surma, is joined near Azmiriganj in northeastern Bangladesh by the Kalni and farther down by the Kusiyara branch. The Dhaleswari, a distributary of the Jamuna River, joins the Meghna a few miles above the junction of the lower Padma and the Meghna. As it meanders south, the Meghna grows larger after receiving t
From north-central Bangladesh to southeast Bangladesh, the Jamuna and its adjacent channels cover a wide area. There are many rivers that enter the Jamuna, especially from the west, and with their notoriously shifting channels, they not only prevent permanent settlements along its banks, but they also hinder communication between Dhaka and the northern region of Bangladesh.
In northwestern Bangladesh, the Tista is the most important water carrier. Rising near Sikkim, India, it flows southward, then turns southeast near Darjiling (Darjeeling), and eventually meets the Jamuna in Bangladesh. Lower Tista reaches are difficult to navigate due to the shoals and quicksand surrounding the junction.
Flowing generally west and southwest through the coastal plain, the Chittagong Hills and adjoining plains are formed by four main rivers—the Feni, the Karnaphuli, the Sangu, and the Matamuhari. The Karnaphuli is the longest of these rivers, and it is dammed at Kaptai, about 30 miles (50 km) from its mouth near Chittagong.
None of the major rivers of Bangladesh originates within the country’s territory. The headwaters of the Surma are in India; the upper Padma rises in Nepal and the Jamuna in China, but they too reach Bangladesh across Indian territory. Thus, Bangladesh lacks full control over the flow of any of the streams that irrigate it. The construction of a barrage upstream at Farakka in West Bengal has led to the diversion of a considerable volume of water from the Ganges in India, and the flow to western Bangladesh is insufficient in the dry season, from November to April.
The soil
There are three main soil types in Bangladesh- old alluvial soils, recent alluvial soils, and hill soils. The fertile recent alluvial soils, found mainly in flooded areas, are usually clays and loams, variously pale brown, sandy, chalky, and mica-laden. They are deficient in phosphoric acid, nitrogen, and humus but not in potash and lime. The old alluvial soils in the jungles of the Barind and Madhupur regions are dark iron-rich brown or reddish clays and loams. They are sticky during the rainy season and hard during the dry periods. The hill soils are generally permeable and can support dense forest growth.
The climate
Bangladesh has a typical monsoon climate characterized by occasional rain-bearing winds, moderately warm temperatures, and high humidity. In general, maximum temperatures in the summer months, from April to September, are in the low to mid-90s F (mid-30s C). January is the coolest month, with high temperatures averaging in the mid-to-upper 70s F (mid-20s C).
Atmospheric pressures are lowest in Bangladesh during storm season in June and July. In winter, winds are mainly from the north and northeast, blowing gently in northern and central regions but more aggressively near the coast. There may be wind speeds of 40 miles (65 km) per hour during the northwester period from March to May, however.
Except in some parts of the west, Bangladesh receives heavy rains; it usually exceeds 60 inches (1,500 millimeters) per year. The south, southeast, north, and northeast areas of Sylhet often receive 80 to 100 inches (2,000 to 2,500 millimeters), and the northern and northwestern parts receive 150 to 200 inches (3,800 to 5,000 millimeters). Monsoons occur between June and September or early October, when the maximum amount of rainfall occurs.
Since the early 18th century, when records were first kept, more than 1,000,000 people have been killed in very high intensity storms occurring in April and May and late September to October, and sometimes November. These disturbances may produce winds with speeds exceeding 100 miles (160 km) per hour, and they may generate waves in the Bay of Bengal that crest as high as 20 feet (6 metres) before crashing with tremendous force onto the coastal areas and the offshore islands, causing heavy losses of life and property.
Life on earth, including plants and animals
It is true that Bangladesh has a lush vegetation, with villages seemingly buried in groves of mango, jackfruit, bamboo, betel nut, coconut, and date palms.
Bangladesh has four different zones of vegetation. Eastern zone consists of parts of Sylhet and Chittagong areas, has many low hills covered with jungles of bamboo and rattan. Central zone, covering parts of the country to north of Dhaka, contains many lakes and supports swampy vegetation- Soil of part of this zone produces the Madhupur jungles. Northwestern zone, lying to northwest of Jamuna and southwest of Padma formsflat plain-Veternity of which consists mostlyof cultivated plants andorchards. Southern zonealong Bayof Bengalcontains the vast wetlandsof Sundarbanswith their distinctive mangrove vegetation. Several mangrove species are commercially valuable, including sundari(Heritiera fomes or H. minor), for which the Sundarbans are named, and goran(Ceriops roxburghiana).Also valuable are the gewa or gengwa (Excoecaria agallocha) trees, which yield a softwood used for making newsprint. Amongthe astounding variety offloracesare water lilies (locally called shapla,countrys national flower), marigolds, tuberoses,and Chinese hib
Bangladesh has an abundance of wildlife, including more than 100 species of mammals, although the population of some species has diminished significantly since the early 20th century. Some elephants, living in herds of fewer than a dozen to nearly 100, are found in the Chittagong Hill Tracts and in the northeastern Sylhet region. Domestic water buffaloes (Bubalis bubalis) are used for plowing and pulling carts. Of the different kinds of deer, the small muntjac (genus Muntiacus; also called barking deer) and the large sambar deer (Cervus unicolor), with its maned neck, are well known. The samba lives in the eastern jungles of the country. The medium-sized spotted deer (C. axis) was once common in many parts of the country but by the early 21st century had become limited to the Sundarbans region. The barasingha (C. duvauceli) also once inhabited the Sundarbans but became extinct in Bangladesh in the 20th century. Similarly, the hog deer (Axis procinus) has disappeared from the country.
The royal Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) is the most famous of the carnivores. The common leopard (P. pardus) is native to the region, as is its smaller relative, the clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa), with its dark gray oblong-spotted fur. Leopard cats (Felis bengalensis) are similar in size to domestic cats, but their legs are longer.
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Among the bears in Bangladesh are the sloth bear (Melursus ursinus), Asiatic black bear (Ursus thibetanus; also known as Himalayan black bear), and sun bear (U. malayanus). Jackals (Canis aureis), whose eerie howling at night is a familiar sound in Bangladesh, as well as a variety of mongooses. Most of the country’s primate species are Bengal monkeys (Macaca mulatta), also called rhesus monkeys.
Bangladesh is inhabited by hundreds of species of birds. Common house crows are found everywhere, and their cries are detested by many people of Bangladesh, who regard crows as a bad omen. Bulbuls, magpie-robins, warblers, flycatchers, mynah birds, and other birds are also found; some are migrants that appear only in winter. Among the eagles, the crested serpent eagle and ring-tailed fishing eagle are the most common. There also are an array of water birds, including herons, storks, ducks, and wild geese.
The people
Groups of ethnicity
Ethnic composition of Bangladesh
The vast majority of the population of Bangladesh is Bengali—a term describing both an ethnic and a linguistic group. Bangladeshi people are historically diverse, having originated from various groups who settled in the region over the course of many centuries. The Vedda peoples were perhaps the earliest group to settle in the area. According to some ethnologists, they were followed by peoples from the Mediterranean and neighbouring areas, particularly those who spoke Indo-European languages. During the 8th century CE, persons of Arab, Persian, and Turkish origin moved in large numbers to the subcontinent. By the beginning of the 13th century, they had entered what is now Bangladesh. It is incorrect to contend that contemporary Bangladeshi Muslims are all descended from lower-caste Hindus who had converted to Islam; a substantial proportion are descendants of Muslims who reached the subcontinent from elsewhere.
Non-Bengalis—consisting primarily of smaller indigenous groups—constitute only a tiny fraction of the population. Most of these peoples inhabit the Chittagong Hill Tracts, which are the most sparsely populated area of the country. Some of the groups are related to the peoples of Myanmar (Burma), and many follow Buddhism, although both Hinduism and Christianity also have a significant following. Of the dozen or so ethnolinguistic groups in Chittagong Hill Tracts, the largest are the Chakma, the Marma (Magh or Mogh), the Tripura (Tipra), and the Mro; the Khomoi (Kumi), the Kuki, and Mizo (formerly called Lushai) are among the smaller groups.
The Santhal, the Khasi, the Garo, and the Hajang are indigenous minorities in other parts of Bangladesh. The Santhal people live in the northwestern part of Bangladesh, the Khasi in Sylhet in the Khasi Hills near the border with Assam, India, and the Garo and Hajang in the northeastern part of the country.
Bangladeshi languages
Bangladesh’s national language, Bengali, belongs to the Indo-Aryan group of languages and is related to Sanskrit. Unlike Pali, which originated in ancient India as a religious language spoken by the Brahmans, Gaudiya Prakrit—the languageBangladesh developed from—developed outside the influence of the Aryans. The Pala rulers of Bengal (8th to 12th century)—who were Buddhists and who used Pali as their religious language—did not inhibit the emergence of a colloquial tongue known as Bengali.
Nearly all of Bangladesh’s population speaks Bengal. It is important to note that the indigenous minority groups speak their own languages and dialects, some of which are Tibeto-Burman. Among educated groups and in urban centers, English, an Indo-European language, is widely spoken.
Theology
Religion in Bangladesh
Most of the people of Bangladesh follow Islam, which was made the official religion by a 1988 constitutional amendment. The arrival of Muslims in Bengal at the beginning of the 13th century and the rapid increase in their strength and influence permanently changed the character and culture of the area. When the Muslims first arrived, Hinduism was by far the dominant religion, although there were pockets of Buddhists and a few adherents of local religions. The Hindus remained in the majority through most of Mughal period (16th to 18th century). Even as early as 1870s, there were more than 18 million Hindus in Bengal, compared with about 16 million Muslims. From 1890s onward however, the weight began to shift toward Muslims.
There were several reasons for the increase in the proportion of the Muslim population. Perhaps the most significant was the activities of ascetics and Sufis (practitioners of Sufism, a mystical form of Islam), who won converts among lower-caste Hindus. A significant increase in Muslims from northern India and other countries was also significant.
Most Muslims are Sunni, but there are a small number of Shiʿis, primarily descendants of immigrants from Iran. Hindus make up a substantial minority, while Roman Catholics and Buddhists are just a tiny fraction of the population. Chittagong Hill Tracts has several tribes, including the Chakma, Marma, and Mro, which practice Buddhism. Several parts of Kuki, Khomoi, and Mro practices local religions. Mizo people are mostly Christians, whereas Tripura people practice Hinduism.
Patterns of settlement
There is a wide variation in the population density of Bangladesh, which averages over 2,500 persons per square mile (1,000 per square km) in the early 21st century depending on how flatland is distributed. Dhaka, the country’s most fertile zone, has the highest population density, while Chittagong has the lowest density.
Settlements in rural areas
The rural area throughout Bangladesh is so thickly settled that it is often difficult to distinguish any well-defined pattern of individual villages, with the exception of a few noticeable features. There are, however, some noticeable patterns. The inundation of most of the fields during the rainy season makes it necessary to build houses on higher ground. Continuous strings of settlements along roads are common in areas south of the upper Padma River and in the floodplains of the Mahananda, Tista, Jamuna, lower Padma, and Meghna rivers. Similar settlements are found in the Chittagong Hills and in the hilly segment of the southern Sylhet region. Settlements are more scattered, however, in areas in southwestern Bangladesh along the Bay of Bengal, in the floodplains of the Old Brahmaputra, in the lower-lying areas of eastern and southern Sylhet, and in parts of Chittagong. In central and western Sylhet and in some areas of the Chittagong Hills settlements occur in a nucleated, or clustered, pattern. With the addition of prefabricated one- or two-story structures scattered among thatched bamboo huts, the character of rural villages has changed since 1950
Settlements in urban areas
The urban-rural divide in Bangladesh
Although industrial development has prompted migration to the cities, Bangladesh is one of the least-urbanized areas in South Asia. In the 2010s about one-third of the population lived in urban areas. There are three major cities: Dhaka, Chittagong, and Khulna. Khulna is a commercial and industrial center; the opening of the port at Mongla nearby and the growth of the Daulatpur industrial area have increased its population.
Trends in demographics
Age breakdown in Bangladesh
Bangladesh’s economy
Bangladesh’s heavy dependence on agriculture has long contributed to seasonal unemployment among rural farmworkers and a generally low standard of living in many areas. To counteract this imbalance, a policy of industrialization was adopted in the mid-20th century. During the period of Pakistani administration (1947-71), priority was given to industries based on indigenous raw materials such as jute, cotton, hides, and skins. The principle of free enterprise in the private sector was accepted, subject to certain conditions, including the national ownership of public utilities. The industrial policy also aimed to develop the production oft consumer goods as quickly as possible in order to avoid dependence on imports.
The Pakistani administration established new types of autonomous corporations to deal with industrial development, electricity, water and sewerage management, the development of forest industries, and road transportation. In 1972 however, the government of the new independent Bangladesh implemented socialist policies, nationalizing these corporations and establishing several new corporations to manage the nationalized enterprises. Hasty change coupled with inexperience of those placed in charge of the corporations produced widespread disruptions and industrial production nearly came to a halt. In 1973 the government launched a five-year development plan (the first of a series of such plans that have guided the country’s economy into the 21st century). The policy of nationalization was gradually revised and replaced by 19-point program announced in 1979 that emphasized greater productivity and efficiency. In an effort to encourage private investment, the government also returned many state-owned enterprises to the private sector.
Fishing and agriculture
Tea pickers in Bangladesh
Bangladesh has largely remained agricultural, with nearly half the population employed in this sector in the early 21st century. Rice is the predominant agricultural product, but jute and tea, both of which are key sources of foreign exchange, also are important. Indeed, the country is one of the world’s leading suppliers of raw jute. Other major agricultural products include wheat; pulses, such as peas, beans, and lentils; sweet potatoes; oilseeds and spices of various kinds; sugarcane; tobacco; and fruits, such as bananas, mangoes, and pineapples.
River Meghna
It is particularly easy to breed and raise fish in Bangladesh’s rivers, which account for nearly two fifths of the country’s fish production. In addition to open-water fishing, the rivers and seacoast also offer opportunities, mostly in the estuaries of the Bay of Bengal. Among the fish caught are the marine rupchanda, or pomfret, and the freshwater hilsa, or shad.
Power and resources
A major obstacle to the economic development of Bangladesh has been a general lack of mineral resources. Despite the country’s first oil well being established near Sylhet in 1986, no marketable quantities of petroleum have been found. There are more than half the proven gas reserves in the Comilla area, and the rest in Sylhet. Natural gas is used mainly for fertilizer manufacture and thermal power generation.
Some deposits of coal have been found in northwestern Bangladesh in the Rajshahi area; the thickest seams are located at relatively inaccessible depths of 3,000 to 3,500 feet (900 to 1,000 metres). Smaller deposits of coal exist in northwestern Sylhet. The Chittagong Hill Tracts contain some brown coal and lignite. Peat deposits exist in several places, but some of the beds remain underwater for half the year, making extraction difficult. Limestone is found in the Sylhet and Chittagong areas. Radioactive minerals have been detected in sand deposits along the beaches south of Cox’s Bazar.
A major source of hydroelectricity in the Chittagong Hill Tracts is the Kaptai Dam.
The manufacturing industry
Despite the low value of exports of raw jute, efforts were made under the Pakistani administration to establish mills to produce and export jute products, in order to earn foreign exchange. 45% of the jute produced during that period was processed in the territory; the balance was exported raw. After independence, jute and jute products remained an important source of the country’s foreign exchange earnings- but frozen fish and shrimp became major exports.
There are paper mills at Chandraghona, Chhatak, and Paksey, as well as a paper and board mill in Khulna that use bamboo from the Chittagong Hill Tracts and the various softwood trees from the Sundarbans.
Fertilizer factories, textile factories, sugar factories, glassworks, and aluminum factories are among Bangladesh’s industries. It also has cement factories, located at Chhatak, in the Sylhet area. Khulna has a shipyard for repairing and reconstructing ships, and Chittagong has a steel mill.
Cottage industries mainly produce yarn and textile fabrics, mostly coarse and medium-quality fabrics. Another cottage industry produces cigarettes called bidis. Carpets, ceramics, and cane furniture are also cottage industries.
The financial sector
Since the establishment of Grameen Bank in 1976, Bangladesh has served as a pioneering center for microfinance, a means of extending credit to nontraditional borrowers.
The trade
Imports from Bangladesh
Export destinations in Bangladesh
Bangladesh imports primarily from China and South Asia, while exporting primarily to Europe, the United States, and Canada. Major exports include garments and knitwear, agricultural products, seafood, jute, and leather.
The transportation industry
A network of waterways, roads, and railways, all of which were built during British rule, is the main component of the country’s transportation system. The inland waterways are important as they provide low-cost transportation and provide access to areas where land transport would be more expensive. In addition to carrying most of the domestic and foreign cargo, there are international airports in Dhaka and Chittagong, as well as several domestic airports. The chief seaports are Chittagong and Mongla.
The forms of transport used on Bangladesh’s roads range from automobiles and buses to the bullock cart. Two-wheeled horse-drawn jigs and bullock carts are still used, primarily in the north in Rajshahi. Town and city dwellers both rely largely on the cycle rickshaw and on two types of three-wheeled vehicles, known locally as auto and tempo. The lightweight cycle rickshaw, which can easily be used on unpaved roads, is the most popular vehicle in towns and villages. The annual inundations that submerge most of the rural roads necessitate the use of so-called country boats—flat wooden boats that are hand-propelled by means of poles or long paddles.
The government and society
Framework for the constitution
Since 1972, Bangladesh’s constitution has specified a parliamentary form of government, but this has been interrupted by coups. In 1975, a military coup led to a regime of martial law, and, though the form of government that followed was a mixture of presidential and parliamentary systems, power effectively remained with the army. The country experienced additional upsets and periods of martial law in the 1980s, but in 1991 a parliamentary system was restored, with a president as head of state and a prime minister as head of government.
The Jatiya Sangsad Bhaban (Parliament building) of Bangladesh
The Jatiya Sangsad (House of the Nation), also known as Bangladesh Parliament, is a unicameral entity consisting of 350 seats. Most of these seats are filled through direct election by the people. The remaining seats are reserved for women, who are elected by the parliament itself. Legislators serve five-year terms. The parliament elects the president, who also serves a five-year term but has a two-term limit. The president then appoints the leader of the legislative majority party (or coalition) as prime minister.
Government at the local level
Between the early 1980s and the early 1990s, local government in Bangladesh underwent a large-scale administrative reorganization to decentralize power. The resulting structure consisted of several major divisions, each of which was subdivided into a number of districts, called zila. These districts were further subdivided into smaller units, called upzila and thana. Bangladesh now consists of 8 divisions, more than 60 districts, and more than 500 upzila and thana. Villages—the smallest unit of government—numbered in the tens of thousands, and were grouped into unions beneath the upzila and thana.
A popularly elected executive and council heads local government in both rural and urban areas. A district and thana’s executive is assisted by a number of professionals appointed by the national government, as well as their elected councils. Each division is led by a commissioner.
The law
Bangladesh’s judicial system is essentially the same as when the territory was a province of Pakistan and it owes its origins to the system in operation under the British Raj. The 1972 constitution divided the Supreme Court of Bangladesh into Appellate and High Court divisions, and mandated a complete separation of the judiciary and executive branches of government. However, during the subsequent authoritarian regime, the power of the Supreme Court was greatly reduced. In 1977, a Supreme Judicial Council was established to draw up a code of conduct for Supreme Court and High Court judges, who may be removed from office by the president upon the council’s recommendation.
It is possible for High Court judges to hear cases from lower courts in other parts of the country for part of the year by going on circuit. The majority of criminal cases are handled by magistrate courts, which include district courts, sessions courts, and several types of magistrate courts.
Welfare and health
Bangladesh has many government hospitals and rural health centres. Tuberculosis, cholera, malaria, and dengue fever continue to pose threats to public health. However, an effective approach to the treatment of cholera and tuberculosis has been developed by research laboratories and hospitals in Dhaka and Comilla, and the incidence of malaria has been reduced by a malaria-eradication program in which swamps and marshes are regularly sprayed with insecticides. Historically, leprosy also was a serious problem in Bangladesh. In the late 20th century, however, the government took aggressive measures to eradicate the disease, and within less than a decade, leprosy had virtually disappeared from the country.
Public and private agencies provide social services. Community development projects, handicapped schools, youth centers, orphanages, and social worker training institutes are among the services provided. Population growth has been halted by a family-planning program launched in the late 20th century.
Bangladesh’s education system
The educational system in Bangladesh was established during the British rule. The primary and secondary levels are both compulsory, though universal participation has been more ideal than a fact. Elementary schooling is divided into eight years, while secondary education lasts for four years. There are two levels of secondary education- the lower and higher level- and public exams are conducted at the conclusion of each level. Schools in urban and rural areas differ significantly in terms of staffing and funding.
There are hundreds of colleges, most of them affiliated with one of the larger universities. Other prominent institutions include Jahangirnagar University (1970) on the outskirts of the capital, the Bangladesh Agricultural University (1961) at Mymensingh, the Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (1962) at Dhaka, and the Islamic University (1980) at Kushtia. Medical education is provided by several medical colleges and an institute of postgraduate medicine at Dhaka. Each college or institute has a full-fledged hospital attached to it.
As part of its vocational training program, Bangladesh has several engineering colleges, polytechnics and law schools. In addition, there are a number of specialized colleges that train students in areas such as the arts, home economics, social welfare and research, and agriculture.
More than two-thirds of the population were literate by the late 2010s, up from less than half at the beginning of the century.
Life in the cultural sphere
The Bengali language, Islamic religion, and rural character of Bangladesh all serve to unify the country’s culture to a considerable degree. Bengalis share some regional variations, but there are much greater cultural differences among ethnic, religious, and social minorities, as well as between rural and urban populations.
Social customs and daily life
In Bangladesh, households typically include several generations of extended family. Most marriages are arranged by parents or other relatives, but increasing numbers of educated men and women choose their own partners. Custom and religion among Muslims require that a dowry be offered by the husband to the wife, but it is usually claimed only in the event of separation or at the husband’s death. Divorce is permissible among Muslims, and Muslim law (Sharīʿah) permits limited polygyny, although it is not widespread. Hindus may obtain a separation by application to a court of law.
The most important festivals in Bangladesh are religious. On the 10th day of the last month of the Islamic calendar, Eid al-Adha, the festival of sacrifice, falls at the end of Ramadan, the Muslim month of fasting. Both occasions involve visits between family and friends.
Despite the fact that rice, pulses, and fish still constitute the staple diet of Bangladeshis, shortages of rice have forced them to accept wheat and wheat products as an alternative. During weddings and other festive occasions, seasoned rice (pilau) is served along with highly spiced meat dishes and curries. Bangladesh has a large variety of milk-based sweets.
The lungi (a length of cloth wrapped around the lower half of the body, comparable to the Malaysian sarong) with a short vest is the most common form of male attire in the countryside and in less-wealthy sections of urban settlements. Men of the educated classes prefer light cotton trousers called pajamas (from which the English word originates) and a kind of collarless knee-length shirt known as a panjabi. On more formal occasions they dress in a modification of the Western suit. The traditional sherwani and churidar, calf-length tunic and close-fitting trousers, are still seen at weddings, where they are worn along with the turban. The sari is common among women but girls and younger women, especially students, prefer the shalwar kamiz, a combination of calf-length shirt and baggy silk or cotton trousers gathered at the ankles.
Bangladeshi arts
The literature
The Bengali language began to assume a distinct form in the 7th century CE, and by the 11th century a tradition of Bengali literature had been established. Litterateurs received official patronage under both the Pala (8th to 12th century) kings and early Muslim rulers; under the Senas (11th and 12th centuries) and Mughals (early 16th to mid-18th century), however, they were generally unsupported. Nevertheless, Bengali language and literature thrived in various traditions of music and poetry that were practiced outside the court, laying the foundation for the “Bengali Renaissance” of the 19th century.
The arts of music, dance, and theatre
There are four main types of music in Bangladesh—classical, light-classical, devotional, and popular—which may overlap in some cases. Classical music has many forms, of which the dhrupad (Hindustani devotional songs) and the related shorter form called khayal are the best known. Devotional music is represented by qawwali and kirtana, vocal genres that are part of the common musical heritage of the subcontinent. It is, however, in the field of local nonclassical popular music that Bangladesh is most prominent. The forms known as bhatiali, bhawaiya, jari, sari, marfati, and baul have no real equivalents outside the country. The vigorous spontaneous style of these musics generally distinguishes them from classical genres.
Apart from such classical dances as kathakali and bharata natyam—forms that are popular throughout the subcontinent—unique indigenous dances have developed in Bangladesh. Among the most widespread of these are the dhali, baul, manipuri, and snake dances. Each form expresses a particular aspect of communal life and is danced on specific occasions. Not all performances are improvised, but improvisation has been a core component of both classical and nonclassical music and dance for centuries. With the increasing commercialization of the arts, however, improvisation has been on the wane. Although some of the performing arts are learned informally, others are taught formally at music and dance academies. Two of the oldest and most prominent of such academies are the Bulbul Academy for Fine Arts and the Nazrul Academy, both in Dhaka.
Almost every town and most of the villages have cinemas. Plays are occasionally staged by amateur groups and drama societies in educational institutions, and they are broadcast regularly on radio and television. Despite not being as popular as the cinema, musical concerts are very popular. Jatra, a form of opera based on local legends, is especially popular in the countryside.
Architecture and visual arts
It was Zainul Abedin who first caught the attention of the Bangladeshi public with his sketches of the Bengal famine of 1943 that led to the development of painting as an independent art form. He was able to gather a group of artists around him after the partition of Pakistan from India in 1947, who experimented with both traditional and innovative forms.
The historical prevalence of Islamic arts in Bangladesh is especially evident in the many mosques, mausoleums, forts, and gateways that have survived from the Mughal period. These structures are characterized by the pointed arch, the dome, and the minaret. The best-preserved example is the 77-dome mosque at Bagerhat in the south. The ruins of Lalbagh Fort, an incomplete 17th-century Mughal palace at Dhaka, also provide some idea of the older Islamic architectural traditions.
Mahavira Somapura
At Paharpur and Mahasthan in the north, and at Maynamati in the south, remains of pre-Muslim Buddhist architecture have been discovered. Their circular stupa pattern is typical of ancient Buddhist monasteries in India and dates back to the 8th century.
In the British and Pakistani periods, public buildings sometimes followed the Mughal style, but by the mid-20th century, preferences had shifted to the International Style. Skyscrapers cannot be built in Bangladesh because of its soft subsoil.
Recreation and sports
During the 20th century, football (soccer) emerged as the preeminent sport in Bangladesh. Field hockey, cricket, tennis, badminton, and wrestling also are popular. However, indigenous games of the “touch-and-run” type, such as kabadi, remain among the favourites of children and youths. One such game, called kite flying, requires each of two teams in turn to send out a player to raid the other’s territory. The raider must, while chanting, touch as many opposing players as he can without taking a breath.
The media and publishing industry
Both radio and television are government-controlled. English dailies have a greater circulation than Bengali papers, because their patrons are from the educated classes.
Husain, Syed Sajjad
A brief history
Although Bangladesh has existed as an independent country only since the late 20th century, its national character within a broader South Asian context dates back to the ancient past. The country’s history, then, is intertwined with that of India, Pakistan, and other countries of the area. The land of Bangladesh, mainly a delta formed by the Padma (Ganges [Ganga]) and the Jamuna (Brahmaputra) rivers in the northeastern portion of the Indian subcontinent, is protected by forests to the west and a myriad of watercourses in the centre. As such, it was long home to distinctive regional cultures. In early times a number of independent principalities flourished in the region—called Bengal—including Gangaridai, Vanga, Gauda, Pundra, and Samatata, among others. In 14th-century Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah was instrumental in unifying many of these principalities. The Mughals added more territories, including Bihar and Orissa (now states of India), to constitute Suba Bangalah—which British colonial administration later called the Bengal Presidency. In 1947, when British colonial rule ended and partitioned into East Bengal and West Bengal—East
Until about 1700, there were Buddhist, Hindu, and Muslim dynasties
From the 3rd century BCE, Buddhism flourished in Bengal as the Mauryan emperors extended their influence. Under the Gupta kings, who reigned from the early 4th to the late 6th century CE, Hinduism reestablished its hold, but Buddhism did not fully disappear. The two religions coexisted under the Pala (8th-12th century) dynasty, as well as under the Chandra (10th-11th century) dynasty in the southeast. By the end of the 11th century, a strong Hindu Sena dynasty had gained control over a large part of Bengal.
Islam was introduced to Bengal by Arab traders in the 9th century. Invading from the northwest about 1200, the Muslim dynasty overthrew the Senas, culminating in the Mughal dynasty (16th-18th century). In eastern Bengal, as well as much of the northern part of the Indian subcontinent, Islam became the predominant religion.
After Muslim rule in Bengal, syncretism became commonplace. The rulers largely left religion alone (though there were some exceptions), concentrating on integrating localities into the state system. In their administration, high-ranking officials, influential tradesmen, eminent writers and musicians came from diverse religious traditions. Sufism and Muslim saints preached Islam; however, settlers of all faiths received patronage. Caste-based discrimination was not widespread in Bengal under Muslim rule, though higher-caste Hindus did receive land grants. As Muslims developed an agrarian economy, Islam spread more rapidly. At the same time, Hindu saint Caitanya’s sect flourished as it was open to all members of society regardless of caste or social standing.
As a result of the Mughals, Bengal’s political boundaries expanded into Suba Bangalah (the Province of Bengal), and economic activity increased.
During the rule of the emperor Aurangzeb (reigned 1658–1707), the English East India company was permitted to establish its base at Calcutta (Kolkata). The British gained strength in the region as the Mughal Empire weakened, leading to the eventual incorporation of British India into the British Empire. In 1757, following a battle in the town of Plassey between forces led by British soldier Robert Clive and the Mughal nawab (viceroy) Sirāj-ud-Dawlah, the East India Company emerged as the dominant political power in Suba Bangalah. Under Gov.-Gen. Charles Cornwallis (served 1786–93), a permanent settlement system was established in Bengal Presidency whereby property rights were granted in perpetuity to local zamindars. This policy indirectly stimulated the growth of a new landed middle class – called bhandralok – which eventually became most active advocate for Indian self-government.
Shortly after Assam was made a separate province in 1874, the viceroy, George Nathaniel Curzon, promoted the idea of splitting Bengal along religious lines into two provinces: Western Bengal, with its capital at Calcutta and a Hindu majority, and Eastern Bengal and Assam. Although this move was ostensibly made on a geopolitical basis, it was also intended to position the Muslims as a counterweight to the Hindus.
The partition of India provoked vociferous protest in Western Bengal, especially in Calcutta, where the Indian National Congress (also called the Congress Party; formed in 1885) played a prominent role. Indian Muslim leaders, however, mostly supported the partition, and in 1906 they gathered at Dhaka under the patronage of Nawab Salimullah and set up the All-India Muslim League. Their efforts secured separate electorates and separate constituencies for Muslims under the constitutional reforms of 1909, but they could not save the partition. In 1912 the partition was annulled, Bihar and Orissa were constituted into a new province, and Assam reverted to its separate status.
Following the reunification of Bengal, the Congress Party and the Muslim League worked together for self-government; among the leaders of this effort were Nawab Salimullah, Chitta Ranjan Das, Fazl ul-Haq, and Sarat Chandra Bose. Communal animosities resurfaced in the early 1920s, however, in response to a Hindu nationalist movement known as the Noncooperation Movement. Consequently, to achieve political goals, it became necessary to adopt coalition tactics that would transcend communal antagonisms; the politician who proved most adept at this was Fazl ul-Haq, chief minister of Bengal from 1937 to 1943. He set up his own Peasants and Tenants (Krishak Proja) Party and formed a coalition with the Muslim League. In 1940, at the league’s annual gathering at Lahore, Fazl ul-Haq proposed the so-called “Pakistan Resolution,” demanding independent states for Muslims. The following year, however, he was expelled from the Muslim League; he formed a new coalition and continued to serve as chief minister.
In 1942 new rounds of political dialogue commenced, but no agreement could be reached. With legislative elections in 1946, the Muslim League returned to power under the leadership of Hussain Shaheed Suhrawardy and subsequently became chief minister of Bengal. In August of that year an intense Muslim-Hindu communal conflict erupted in Calcutta, and it eventually spread well beyond the borders of Bengal. This event, combined with protracted and fruitless discussions between various groups, made the partition of India appear inevitable. Shaheed Suhrawardy and several other prominent political leaders reopened negotiations for a separate, independent, united Bengal.
In March 1947, Louis Mountbatten became the last viceroy of British India with a mandate to transfer powers. As plans were being formulated for the partition of India, Mohammed Ali Jinnah, a leading figure of the Muslim League, advocated for the formation of a united Bengal; Mountbatten was not against the idea, but Mahatma Gandhi and the Congress Party opposed it. When British colonial rule ended in August 1947, two new countries—India and Pakistan—were born. West Bengal went to India, and East Bengal formed the eastern wing of Pakistan, which was bisected by a vast tract of northern India.
1947-1971, the Pakistani era
Jinnah, Mohammed Ali
Although the boundaries of East Bengal were based ostensibly on religion, there were disagreements between Hindus and Muslims contingents of the commission tasked with delimiting the province, ultimately leading to the determination of the frontiers by Sir Cyril Radcliffe. The partition catalyzed large-scale migration on both sides of the new boundary as hundreds of thousands of people who believed themselves to be members of a threatened minority moved into what they perceived as a place of refuge. Along with Muslim Bengalis arriving in East Bengal from Hindu majority districts, there were many Muslims who came from other parts of India, mostly from Bihar.
Pakistan began as a parliamentary democracy with a constituent assembly that was tasked with drafting a constitution and serving as the new country’s legislative body; however, overbearing central leadership eventually nullified the system. Failing to earn the support of Jinnah, who had become the first governor-general of Pakistan, Suhrawardy stayed in India to work with Gandhi for communal harmony, and Khwaza Nazimuddin became chief minister of East Bengal. In the central government (based in the western wing of Pakistan) Bengalis held the majority in the legislative branch but had little representation in the executive. Physically and linguistically separated, the two parts of Pakistan had only tenuous links; their overriding common interest was fear of Indian domination.
Khan, Liaquat Ali
During Jinnah’s tenure as governor-general, he maintained a powerful central government under his authority. When Jinnah died in 1948, Nazimuddin became governor-general, but the real power lay with Liaquat Ali Khan, the prime minister. When Liaquat was assassinated in October 1951, Nazimuddin succeeded him as prime minister and installed Ghulam Mohammad, a Punjabi, as governor-general. When Ghulam Mohammad consolidated a coalition of civil and military forces in the central government and secured a virtual transfer of power from the politicians to the coalition, first by dismissing Nazimuddin (who still had a majority in the legislature) in 1953 and then by dismissing the entire constituent assembly shortly after the general elections of 1954. In those elections, almost all the seats had been won by the United Front, a coalition of opposition parties led largely by Fazl ul-Haq and his revamped Peasants and Tenants Party (now called the Peasants and Workers Party) and by Suhrawardy, who had made a comeback with a new party, the Awami League. In 1955 Ghulam Mohammad left office, and Maj. Gen. Iskandar Mirza took office as governor
With a newly elected constituent assembly, Pakistan in 1956 at last adopted a constitution in which both the eastern and western wings of the country were represented. The new constitution also gave the federal government broad powers. Mirza became president and was obliged to appoint Suhrawardy, heading an Awami League coalition, as prime minister; by late 1957, however, Mirza had orchestrated Suhrawardy’s exit from office. In December of that year Firoz Khan Noon became the prime minister, with support from the Awami League.
The government of Pakistan came under military control in 1958, and Mirza was exiled. The elite civil servants assumed great importance under the military regime, which adversely affected the country’s eastern wing. In 1947 there had been very few Bengali Muslims in the Indian Civil Service (ICS), whereas the western wing had produced several dozen. Although equal recruitment from the two wings was national policy, by 1960 only about one-third of the members of the Civil Service of Pakistan were Bengalis. Moreover, the military installations were concentrated in West Pakistan, as was the bulk of economic aid and development.
Bengali discontent festered, finding a voice in Sheikh Mujib. Like previous leaders, Mujib belonged to a landed family. He had been one of the founders of the Awami League in 1949 and became its leading figure after Suhrawardy’s death in 1963. A superb organizer and orator who was jailed repeatedly by the military, Mujib acquired an aura of martyrdom. Following a 1965 clash between India and Pakistan, primarily over control of territories in the Kashmir region of the western Himalayas, he announced a historic six-point demand for East Pakistani autonomy. When Yahya Khan, president of Pakistan and commander in chief of the armed forces, ordered elections in 1970, Mujib’s essentially separatist Awami League won 167 of the 169 seats allotted to East Pakistan in the National Assembly. This gave the league an overall majority in a chamber of 313 members. In West Pakistan the Pakistan People’s Party, led by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, won 81 of 144 seats; Bhutto consequently saw himself as Mujib’s rival.
Throughout March 1971 President Yahya Khan negotiated at length with Mujib in Dhaka while government troops poured in from West Pakistan. Then, on March 25, the army launched a massive attack; destruction was immense, and many students were among the casualties. Mujib was arrested and flown to West Pakistan. Most of the Awami League leaders fled, set up a government-in-exile in Calcutta (Kolkata), and declared East Pakistan the independent state of Bangladesh. Internal resistance was mobilized by some Bengali units of the regular army. Among the most notable of the resistance leaders was Major Zia ur-Rahman, who held out for some days in Chittagong before the town’s recapture by the Pakistani army. He then retreated to the border and began to organize bands of guerrillas. A different resistance was started by student militants, among whom Abdul Kader Siddiqi, with his followers, known as Kader Bahini, acquired a reputation for ferocity.
Some 10 million Bengalis, mainly Hindus, fled over East Pakistan’s frontier into India while the Indian government watched with alarm. Many guerrillas, however, were leftist and a cause of concern. With some of the major world powers taking sides—the United States and China for a united Pakistan, and the Soviet Union and India for an independent Bangladesh—the Indian army invaded both the western and eastern wings of Pakistan on December 3, 1971. The Pakistani defenses surrendered on December 16, ensuring Bangladesh’s independence. Yahya Khan was deposed in Pakistan and replaced by Bhutto; Mujib was released from jail and returned to Dhaka to a hero’s welcome.
Since independence, Bangladesh
In January 1972, Mujib was installed as the first prime minister of the new parliamentary government of Bangladesh, and Abu Sayeef Choudhury became president. Still troublesome, however, were various local paramilitary forces, known as Razakars, that supported the Pakistani cause. The Bengali Razakar force was called Al-Badr, while the Urdu-speaking force was known as Al-Shams. As Bangladeshi retribution against these pro-Pakistani forces ensued, Biharis—known as Urdu speakers, though most had been born locally rather than in Bihar—fled into enclaves where their numbers gave some security; nevertheless, many were killed. Hundreds of thousands of Biharis were placed in overcrowded refugee camps, where decades later many still awaited asylum in Pakistan.
Bangladesh’s constitution of 1973 provided for a secular state, a parliamentary form of government, a bill of rights, and a strong commitment to local government. It was not until 1974 that Bangladesh was admitted to the United Nations. The new country confronted many other problems as well, including the restoration of transportation, communication, and international trade networks; the rehabilitation of the power supply; the revitalization of education, health, and population programs; and the resumption of agricultural and industrial production.
Following a policy of economic socialism, the state had absorbed industries and businesses abandoned by Pakistanis, but economic troubles persisted. Prices escalated, and in 1974 scarcities were exacerbated by a great famine with a massive death toll. Faced with crisis, Mujib abridged freedoms and became a virtual dictator; corruption and nepotism reached new depths. On August 15, 1975, Mujib was assassinated along with most of his family by right-wing pro-Pakistan army officers; some politicians also were involved in the conspiracy, and there were allegations of outside support. unsure of their hold, the armed forces split into rival factions.
Another coup, in November 1975, brought Maj. Gen. Zia ur-Rahman into power. Once a freedom fighter, Zia now took an anti-India posture and favoured pro-Pakistan elements. In an effort to legitimize his power, he held a referendum in May 1977, received a vote of confidence, and assumed the office of president in 1978. After ensuring his control over the armed forces and martial law being lifted the following year, he strengthened the military, empowered the bureaucracy and improved law and order while emphasizing food production, irrigation, primary education and rural development. He also initiated economic cooperation with nearby countries—efforts that led to the organization of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) in 1985. However however military coup attempts continue and on May 30th 1981 he was assassinated in Chittagong by some army officers.
Meanwhile, the civilian vice president, Abdus Sattar, was confirmed as president by a nationwide election in 1981, but he was ill and real power was exercised by Lieut. Gen. Hussein Mohammad Ershad and a National Security Council. On March 24, 1982, Ershad ejected Sattar and took over as chief martial-law administrator. In December 1983 he assumed the office of president with the help of a National Party (Jatiya Party). In the election of May 1986 Ershad’s National Party won most of the seats in the legislature.
After concluding that the army had taken control, Ershad called for an election in October and retracted martial law. Despite the fact that the main opposition parties, the Awami League, now led by Sheikh Hasina Wazed, and the Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP), led by Khaleda Zia ur-Rahman, wife of the slain president, boycotted the election, Ershad won by a wide margin.
The opposition parties began a campaign of strikes and demonstrations to force Ershad’s resignation in the late 1980s and in December 1990, after weeks of violent anti-government demonstrations, he finally agreed to step down. A caretaker government, headed by Chief Justice Shahabuddin Ahmed, was chosen by the opposition parties. In parliamentary elections held just two months later, the BNP emerged as the single largest block and Khaleda became prime minister.
Among Khaleda’s achievements in office were the reinstatement through constitutional amendment of a parliamentary (as opposed to presidential) form of government and the advancement of the country’s economic and educational reform programs. She was hampered, however, by strikes instigated by the Awami League and other opposition parties and by a cyclone in 1991 that killed some 130,000 people. The opposition frequently called for Khaleda’s resignation, demanding that a caretaker government be appointed and new elections held but she resisted. In February 1996 general elections were held, and the BNP won an overwhelming victory; however, it was a hollow triumph as only a small percentage of eligible voters had cast ballots, heeding a boycott called by the Awami League. Finally bowing to public pressure Khaleda resigned about six weeks after the elections in favour of a caretaker government. In subsequent elections in June 1998, the opposition swept to power, and Mujib’s daughter Hasina became prime minister.
Strike by the Awami League in Bangladesh
The political situation did not improve much during Hasina’s tenure in office. The BNP regularly boycotted the parliament, and anti-government demonstrations were common. The country also was beset in 1998 by a disastrous monsoon that flooded some two-thirds of Bangladesh’s territory for two months and left more than 30 million people homeless. On other fronts, the government made progress in its relations with India, signing a treaty for sharing water from the Ganges River; it negotiated an agreement (opposed by the BNP) for guerrillas seeking greater autonomy for the indigenous population in the Chittagong Hill Tracts to surrender their arms after a 20-year insurgency; and the economy (particularly agriculture) showed some signs of improvement. In 2001 Khaleda, promising to eliminate corruption, was returned to office. Her BNP and its allies captured more than two-thirds of the seats in the legislature. The victory, however, did little to curb the tense relations between the BNP and the Awami League.
By the end of Khaleda’s second term, scant progress had been made toward controlling corruption. She stepped down as prime minister in late 2006, transferring power to a caretaker administration until early elections could be held in January 2009. However, unrest between the BNP and the Awami League led to the interim head of government stepping down and to install a new caretaker administration before the polls opened. A state of emergency was declared and the elections were canceled. The new caretaker government embarked on an aggressive program to rid the country of corruption before holding elections which were scheduled for December 2008 but were postponed because of the ongoing political battles between Khaleda and Hasina. Meanwhile, the ongoing political battles between Khaleda and Hasina were perceived by the administration to be a hindrance to the country’s stability, and both women were arrested- Khaleda on charges of corruption and Hasina on charges of extortion. Both women were released from custody in 2008. In January 2009 Hasina became prime minister again.
A tribunal to try war crimes cases from the 1971 war of independence was established in March 2010. Awami League opposition leaders, particularly those of Jamaat-e-Islami, were tried by the tribunal, with their supporters and allies protesting against what they saw as political targeting. As a result of its opposition to secularism, the party was barred from participating in elections in 2013.
The general elections in January 2014 presented a major setback for democracy in Bangladesh. With growing concerns of corruption and the abuse of government tools to suppress the opposition, the BNP refused to participate in the elections unless certain demands were met that it said would ensure fair elections. The demands, which included putting a nonpartisan caretaker government in place to oversee the elections, were not met and the BNP set out on a campaign to suppress turnout. When the elections took place, turnout averaged just slightly more than half; in the capital, Dhaka, turnout was less than one-fourth. Turnout in past elections was typically above 80 percent.
Beginning in 2017, a wave of more than 700,000 Rohingya refugees entered Bangladesh, fleeing from genocide in neighbouring Myanmar. The government received considerable international and domestic support for taking them in, but some domestic concerns were raised about Bangladesh hosting the Rohingya indefinitely. While the Awami League-led government had provided refuge for the Rohingya, it also pressured them into “voluntary repatriation” in November 2018, a move observers interpreted as an attempt to alleviate voters’ anxiety on the issue before the upcoming December elections.
The BNP and other opposition groups returned to the campaign trail in 2018, although some demands were again rejected by the Awami League. Among the concerns in this round was the imprisonment of Khaleda, which made her ineligible to lead the BNP in December’s polls. Many of the party’s candidates were imprisoned, disqualified, or assaulted, and more than 10,000 supporters were imprisoned in the lead-up to the election. The Awami League won a landslide victory while the BNP won only a few seats. Hasina denied accusations of rigging the election, and blamed their loss on what she called the party’s lack of leadership.
The political turmoil since independence has had little relevance to the country’s basic problems. The population of Bangladesh, which numbered about 71 million at the 1974 census, has more than doubled according to the 2011 census, despite large-scale emigration to neighbouring Assam and Tripura in India and a smaller exodus over the Arakan border with Myanmar. Agriculture and fishing are still the occupations of nearly half the labour force, and economic development has been largely confined to the environs of Dhaka and Chittagong.